HAVING outlined the gravity and significance of forms, as well as establishing the crucial difference between the exoteric focus of religion and the esoteric truth that operates at the level of the universal, Schuon is eager to demonstrate how these two aspects work together.

Whenever, wherever and however they manifest, these forms – operating, as they do, within the province of the terrestrial – must fulfil a particular task and refrain from stepping outside the boundaries of their own spheres of influence. Whilst Christ is appropriate for some, Buddha or Muhammad may be suitable for others. Using the example of astronomy, Schuon provides an analogy:

It is as though certain persons, when faced with the discovery of other solar systems, continued to maintain the view that there is only one sun, our own, whereas others, perceiving that our sun is not the only one, denied that it was a sun and concluded that there was no such thing, since none was unique. The truth of the matter lies between the two opinions: our sun truly is “the sun,” but it is unique solely in relation to the system of which it is the centre, just as there are many solar systems, so there are many suns, but this does not prevent each being unique by definition. (pp.79-80)

If the present author may be so bold, one way in which exoteric religion has transgressed the theological demarcation of its own territorial parameters is by forging regular historical alliances with imperialist governments and colonial powers. Whether it be the aggressive expansion of Christianity into Asia and South America through Western geopolitics, Islam’s gradual conquest of Persia and North Africa as a result of the expansionist designs of warring caliphs such as ʿUmar ibn al-Khattāb (583/584–644), or right-wing Judaism’s illegal theft of Palestinian land in the name of G_d, this inability to confine one’s own particular beliefs to a specific people or region has led to a clash of civilisations and the inevitable bloodshed that follows.

Interestingly, Schuon questions whether Christianity’s taste for missionary work is really justified:

To this it must be answered that missionaries—although they have profited from abnormal circumstances inasmuch as Western expansion at the expense of other civilizations is due solely to a crushing material superiority arising out of the modern deviation—follow a way that possesses, at least in principle, a sacrificial aspect; consequently the subjective reality of this way will always retain its mystic meaning, independent of the objective reality of missionary activity. The positive aspect that this activity derives from its evangelical origin cannot in fact entirely be lost merely through overstepping the boundaries of the Christian world—which indeed had been done before modern times, though in exceptional circumstances and under quite different conditions—and by encroaching upon worlds that, though not having the Christ Jesus, are “Christian” inasmuch as they have the Universal Christ who is the Word that inspires all Revelation, and therefore do not need conversion. (p.81)

The present writer would contend that one of the most important distinguishing features of missionary activity into non-Christian regions must involve the use of non-coercive means and a deep respect for the political, social, economic and religious sovereignty of one’s foreign counterparts. In essence, the real fruits of missionary work appear when one is able to convince others that it is in the best interests to convert to a new religion; especially when there are profoundly supernatural forces at work, such as

when the spiritual influence emanating from a saint or relic proves stronger than the force of an autochthonous spiritual influence weakened by the existing materialism of the local environment, or because Christianity is better suited to the particular mentality of certain individuals, which necessarily supposes a lack of comprehension by the latter of their own religion, and the presence in them of aspirations, spiritual or otherwise, that Christianity under one form or another will satisfy. (p.81)

At the same time, the apparent failure of Eastern spirituality to penetrate into the West prior to the twentieth century suggests that political, economic and military means have performed a very important role in the spread of Christianity. It has only been with the sudden growth of mass immigration and globalisation that Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam have managed to penetrate the European citadel and spread their own practical and theological values.

The religious expansionism of the West was partly successful, Schuon notes, as a result of the fact that Eastern spirituality was already in decline. Unlike the ongoing degeneration of religion in the West, which is said to be “active and voluntary,” that of the East was due to the ravages of time and the English, Portuguese and various other Christian traders who took their faith with them into the heartlands of the Orient, on whatever pretext, always felt superior in the face of the overwhelming stagnancy that confronted them.

Ironically, those who immersed themselves in the deeper spirituality that prevailed in the more ancient civilisations of India, China and Japan – prior to the arrival of Europeans – would have been far less impressed with Western values and it remains the case that

the contempt of the old East for the modern West is justified in a way that is not merely psychological, and therefore relative and debatable, but on the contrary complete and total, because it is founded on spiritual reasons that alone are decisive. In the eyes of the East when faithful to its own spirit, the “progress” of Westerners will never be anything but a vicious circle that vainly seeks to eliminate inevitable miseries at the cost of the only thing that gives any meaning to life. (p.83)

Although the process of converting from one religion to another seems to betray the fundamental principle of non-expansion, i.e. of ensuring that each particular system does not imitate the esoteric universality of the absolute principle, Schuon accords it with a “subjective validity” that in no way suggests apostasy in the way that it is ordinarily understood.

Although, as we have seen, closed religious systems have a tendency to denounce anything outside of their theological milieu as “paganism” or, in the worst cases, punishable “heresy,” Schuon is of the opinion that it is still necessary for spiritual forms such as Christianity to be universalised. Not in an esoteric context, of course, but in terms of using their denial of other religions to secure for themselves a “unicity” that reinforces their own standing as the one true faith within the field of the exoteric.

The fact that Christianity refers to the end-times and the Second Coming of Jesus, or Buddhists to the appearance of Maitreya, suggests that expressions such as “Go ye therefore and teach all nations” are more than a basic command. As Schuon explains, statements of this kind are prophecy in that all religions will eventually be restored to the Primordial Tradition. The universalism that is promised in a purely exoteric regard, by each respective faith, is finally transposed into an esoteric phenomenon of truly global proportions.

One practical example of the way in which a religion will adopt different attitudes towards (i) those living within its immediate sphere of influence and (ii) those encountered further afield, came to light during the expansion of Islam:

Accordingly, although the Arabian polytheists were given the alternative of Islam or death, this principle was abandoned as soon as the frontiers of Arabia were left behind; thus the Hindus, who moreover are not monotheists, although governed by Moslem monarchs for several centuries, were never subjected after their conquest to the alternative imposed not long before upon the Arab pagans. (pp.85-86)

It is interesting to contrast the proselytising fervour of Christianity and Islam with the more sober approach of their Hindu counterparts, who are so rigorous in their adherence to Sanātana Dharma that they have no desire to convert others to their religion and even consider it a futile exercise in the sense that Brahmanic tradition openly dismisses their chances of salvation.

As a consequence, Schuon asks whether the Muslim conquest of India doesn’t actually represent some kind of “encroachment” upon the Traditional laws of the Hindus themselves. After all, what are we to make of one theological system taking it upon itself to dominate those who adhere to another? According to the Swiss author, Hinduism has always had to deal with the cyclical peaks and troughs of this world and yet, on the whole, has consistently managed to maintain its Traditionalist character. However, during

a certain cyclic moment this primordiality, impregnated as it is with contemplative serenity, was overshadowed by the increasingly marked preponderance of the passional element in the general mentality, in accordance with the law of decline that governs every cycle of terrestrial humanity. Hinduism thus came to lose some of its actuality or vitality in the gradual process of moving away from its origins, and neither spiritual readaptations such as the advent of the tantric and “bhaktic” ways, nor social readaptations such as the splitting up of the castes already referred to, sufficed to eliminate the disproportion between the primordiality inherent in the religion and a mentality increasingly linked to the passions. (pp.87-88)

Hinduism was still resilient enough to prevent a mass conversion to Islam, or even Buddhism prior to that, but this was due in part to the rapid consolidation of Muslim rule and the socio-economic stability that followed.

Just as Hinduism retained its Traditional core, Islam was far more suited to the external conditions of Kali-Yuga. In Schuon’s opinion, this includes the fact that

it takes better into account the preponderance of the element of passion in the souls of men—but also by the following circumstance: the cyclic decline brings with it a quasi-general obscuration, which goes hand in hand with a more or less considerable growth of population, particularly at the lower levels; but this decadence implies a complementary and compensatory cosmic tendency that will act within the social collectivity for the purpose of restoring, at least symbolically, the original quality. (p.89)

In other words, a semblance of Tradition nonetheless remains active within the broader population that has arisen in accordance with the general decline and this means it remains possible for “those who are qualified” and “whose aspirations are serious” to compensate for the sudden rearrangement of earthly forces:

This law comes into play because the human cycle for which the castes are valid is nearing its end, and for this reason the compensation in question tends not merely to restore, symbolically and within certain limits, the castes as they were in the beginning, but even humanity as it was before the institution of the castes. (pp.89-90)

Clearly, the secondary aspects of Tradition pertaining to social organisation do not outweigh the more supreme and inviolable principle of the Absolute. Ironically, the role of Islam when encountering ancient forms of spirituality which are thought to be in the process of gradual dissolution has been to heal the cracks in the spiritual edifice. The Hindus would disagree, naturally, believing that the imposition of a foreign religion is punishment for having transgressed the laws of the cosmos.

Although Schuon makes reference to India’s population explosion, suggesting that the lower castes have grown to such an extraordinary extent that they almost constitute a separate people in themselves, their importance in the overall stability of the caste structure cannot be denied. Worst of all, he contends, are those at the top of the Traditional pyramid who have not increased their numbers and it is this which has become most concerning of all.

Despite the sudden demographical expansion of the quantitative at the expense of the qualitative, one can still find superior elements among the lower castes and these

remain “exceptions that prove the rule,” and for this reason cannot legitimately mingle with the higher castes, though this does not prevent their being individually qualified to follow the ways normally reserved for the noble castes. Thus the system of castes, which for thousands of years has been a factor of equilibrium, necessarily reveals certain fissures at the end of the mahā-yuga, like the disequilibrium of the terrestrial environment itself. (p.91)

* * *

After outlining how Muslim invasions have often stabilised those civilisations with a more ancient spiritual pedigree, Schuon turns his attention to the issue of “Divine injunctions” and the duality they possess in relation to human etymology. As he expounds, these twofold aspects may be encountered

in the very name of “Jesus Christ”: “Jesus”—like “Gotama” and “Mohammed”—indicates the limited and relative aspect of the manifestation of the Spirit, and denotes the support of this manifestation; “Christ”—like “Buddha” and “Rasūl Allāh”—indicates the Universal Reality of this same manifestation, that is to say, the Word as such; and this duality of aspects is likewise found in the distinction between the human and Divine natures of Christ, though the viewpoint of theology does not permit of all the consequences being drawn from this distinction. (p.92)

It is similar, perhaps, to the way we might address somebody by their first name as a result of being on more familiar terms, whilst the use of a surname implies that one’s colleague or associate is connected to others in a much wider sense. “Jesus” is therefore the earthly character who walked among His disciples, whilst the term “Christ” denotes His more important role within the grand scheme of cosmology.

Although it may seem contradictory, Schuon coins the term “relatively absolute” to describe how the Apostles viewed their Christian mission from a universalist perspective whilst confining their religious outlook within a particular milieu – i.e. that of the oppressive Roman occupation which dominated their everyday lives. However, although it is possible to use the expression “relatively absolute” it would be impossible to advance the notion of an “absolutely relative” because the latter suggests nothing other than “pure nothingness”. The former, on the other hand, is legitimate and in

the Roman world Christ and His Church possessed a unique and therefore “relatively absolute” character; in other words, the principial, metaphysical, and symbolic unicity of Christ of the Redemption, and of the Church was necessarily expressed by a unicity of fact on the terrestrial plane. If the Apostles were not called upon to formulate the metaphysical limits that every fact carries with it by definition, and if in consequence they were not called upon to take account of religious universality on the ground of facts, this does not mean that their spiritual Science did not include knowledge of this universality in principle, even though this knowledge was not actualized as regards possible applications to determined contingencies. For example, an eye capable of seeing a circle is capable of seeing all forms, even though they may not be present and the eye is looking only at the circle. (p.93)

Although, as Schuon notes, the limitations of exoteric spirituality do not operate in precisely the same way as political frontiers, it is interesting to recall that Christ will appear among the Gentiles of the West. Meanwhile, the fact that the Christian religion began in Asia reveals that it has a far broader destiny. The Ancient Greek word “Ἀσία,” for example, is connected to the expressions “to go out, to rise” and “the land of the sunrise”. That Christianity has since gravitated westwards is therefore highly significant, even if it must remain differentiated from its religious counterparts.