18th Century
Americas
- American Revolution (1775–1783): The Thirteen American Colonies fought against British colonial rule, resulting in the formation of the United States of America.
- Haitian Revolution (1791–1804): Enslaved Africans in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) revolted against French colonial rule and slavery, leading to the establishment of Haiti as the first independent Black republic.
South Asia
- Mysore Wars (1767–1799): Series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Mysore (under leaders like Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan) and the British East India Company in India, reflecting early resistance to British colonial expansion.
- Sannyasi Rebellion (1770s–1802): A series of revolts led by ascetics (Sannyasis) and dispossessed peasants against the British East India Company in Bengal and other parts of India.
Africa
- Revolts in the Kingdom of Kongo (1700s): Various revolts against the Portuguese and other European influences in the region, led by local leaders and factions seeking to maintain autonomy.
19th Century
Latin America
- Latin American Wars of Independence (1808–1826): A wave of independence movements throughout Latin America, influenced by the Napoleonic Wars and the decline of Spanish and Portuguese power. Key leaders included:
- Simón Bolívar (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia)
- José de San Martín (Argentina, Chile, and Peru)
- Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos (Mexico)
Africa
- Anglo-Asante Wars (1824–1901): Series of conflicts between the Asante Empire in modern-day Ghana and the British Empire, resisting British colonial encroachment.
- Xhosa Wars (1779–1879): A prolonged series of conflicts between the Xhosa people and European settlers (mainly British and Dutch) in South Africa over land and colonial control.
- Mahdist War (1881–1899): The Sudanese revolt against the Ottoman-Egyptian administration and later the British, led by Muhammad Ahmad, the self-proclaimed Mahdi.
Asia
- Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny): A major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising against the British East India Company’s rule in India, involving soldiers (sepoys), peasants, and local rulers.
- Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885): Series of wars between the Burmese Empire and the British East India Company, culminating in the annexation of Burma into British India.
- Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864): A massive civil war in China led by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom against the Qing Dynasty, partly motivated by anti-foreign and anti-Manchu sentiments.
Middle East
- Urabi Revolt (1879–1882): An Egyptian nationalist uprising led by Colonel Ahmed Urabi against the ruling Khedive and European influence, particularly British and French control over Egypt’s finances and military.
- Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911): Movement in Persia (Iran) that aimed to establish a constitution and limit the powers of the monarchy, influenced by anti-imperialist and nationalist sentiments.
Southeast Asia
- Aceh War (1873–1904): Conflict between the Dutch colonial empire and the Sultanate of Aceh in Sumatra, Indonesia, as part of resistance to Dutch expansion.
- Philippine Revolution (1896–1898): The struggle against Spanish colonial rule led by figures like Andrés Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo, which later evolved into resistance against American colonization.
Pacific Islands
- Māori Wars (New Zealand Wars) (1845–1872): Series of conflicts between various Māori tribes and British settlers in New Zealand, over land disputes and sovereignty.
20th Century
Africa
- Maji Maji Rebellion (1905–1907): A revolt against German colonial rule in modern-day Tanzania, involving multiple ethnic groups uniting against German forced labor policies.
- Libyan Resistance (1911–1931): Armed struggle led by Libyan tribal leaders, including Omar Mukhtar, against Italian colonization.
- Ethiopian Resistance and Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1937): Ethiopia’s resistance to Italian invasion and occupation, leading to its brief colonization before liberation during World War II.
- Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960): A violent rebellion against British colonial rule in Kenya, led by the Kikuyu ethnic group, seeking land and independence.
- Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962): A brutal war fought by the National Liberation Front (FLN) against French colonial rule, resulting in Algeria’s independence.
- Angolan War of Independence (1961–1974): Armed struggle led by various nationalist movements (e.g., MPLA, FNLA, UNITA) against Portuguese colonial rule, leading to independence in 1975.
- Mozambican War of Independence (1964–1974): Fought by the FRELIMO movement against Portuguese colonialism, resulting in Mozambique’s independence in 1975.
- Rhodesian Bush War (1964–1979): A civil war between white-minority rule and African nationalist groups in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), ending in majority rule and independence in 1980.
- South African Anti-Apartheid Movement (1948–1994): Struggle against the racial segregation policies of the apartheid regime, led by figures like Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress (ANC), culminating in the first democratic elections in 1994.
Asia
- Indian Independence Movement (late 19th century–1947): A prolonged struggle against British colonial rule, with leaders like Mahatma Gandhi promoting nonviolent resistance, culminating in India’s independence and partition in 1947.
- Indonesian National Revolution (1945–1949): Armed conflict and diplomatic struggle by Indonesian nationalists against Dutch colonial rule following the Japanese occupation in World War II, leading to independence.
- Vietnamese Independence and Wars (1945–1975): Multiple phases of struggle, including the First Indochina War (against French rule) and the Vietnam War (against U.S. intervention and South Vietnam), ending in the reunification of Vietnam in 1975.
- Malayan Emergency (1948–1960): Communist insurgency and nationalist movement against British colonial rule in Malaya, leading to eventual independence in 1957.
- Korean Independence Movement (1910–1945): The struggle for liberation from Japanese colonial rule, culminating in Korea’s liberation at the end of World War II.
Middle East
- Egyptian Revolution of 1919: Nationwide uprising against British occupation, leading to the eventual independence of Egypt in 1922.
- Iraqi Revolt (1920): Rebellion against British mandate rule, resulting in the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq under British supervision.
- Arab Revolt (1936–1939): An anti-colonial uprising in Palestine against British rule and Jewish immigration.
- Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962): A bloody war fought by the National Liberation Front (FLN) against French rule, leading to Algeria’s independence.
- Iranian Revolution (1979): Overthrow of the pro-Western Shah, resulting in the establishment of the Islamic Republic, motivated in part by anti-colonial and anti-imperialist sentiment.
Americas
- Mexican Revolution (1910–1920): A complex civil war with anti-colonial undertones, as indigenous and mestizo populations fought for land reform and the end of foreign exploitation.
- Cuban Revolution (1953–1959): A Marxist revolution led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara against the U.S.-backed Batista regime, resulting in the establishment of a socialist state in Cuba.
- Puerto Rican Independence Movement (mid-20th century–present): A continuous movement aimed at ending U.S. control over the island and achieving full independence.
Oceania
- Fijian Independence Movement (1960s–1970): Political efforts culminating in Fiji’s independence from British rule in 1970.
- Papua New Guinea Independence Movement (1970s): Peaceful struggle for independence, resulting in the end of Australian administration and independence in 1975.
21st Century
Middle East and North Africa
- Arab Spring (2010–2012): A wave of protests and uprisings across the Arab world against authoritarian regimes and external influence, leading to regime changes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen.
Americas
- Bolivian Indigenous and Anti-Neoliberal Movements (2000s–present): Led by indigenous leaders like Evo Morales, these movements have resisted foreign corporate control over resources and called for greater autonomy and rights for indigenous communities.
Pacific
- West Papua Independence Movement (ongoing): A long-standing movement for independence from Indonesia, with calls for self-determination for the indigenous people of West Papua.
- Kanak Independence Movement in New Caledonia (ongoing): The indigenous Kanak people continue to seek independence from French rule, leading to several referendums on independence.
Africa
- Western Sahara Independence Movement (ongoing): The Sahrawi people, represented by the Polisario Front, have sought independence from Moroccan control since Spain’s withdrawal in 1975.
Asia
- Kashmir Self-Determination Movement (ongoing): Efforts by various groups in the region of Kashmir to achieve self-determination, amid disputes between India, Pakistan, and China.
- East Timor Independence Movement (1999–2002): Following decades of struggle and a UN-administered transition, East Timor gained independence from Indonesia in 2002.
Other Global Movements
- Decolonization and Anti-Colonial Movements in Culture and Academia: Efforts to address and undo colonial legacies and practices in education, culture, and knowledge systems globally, including the decolonization of the curriculum and restitution of cultural artifacts.
In the past century, roughly 100 new countries have emerged. The exact number can vary based on how one defines “new country” (e.g., full sovereignty, international recognition) and the specific timeframe considered. Here is an overview of key periods of new country formation:
Post-World War I (1918-1945)
- After World War I, several countries gained independence or were re-established as empires dissolved, such as Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Yugoslavia.
- The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire also led to the formation of Turkey and mandates that later became independent states in the Middle East (e.g., Iraq, Syria).
Post-World War II and Decolonization (1945-1970s)
- Decolonization in Asia and Africa: Many new countries emerged as former European colonies gained independence, particularly in the 1950s-1970s.
- Asia: India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and others.
- Africa: Most countries gained independence in this period, including Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Algeria, and dozens of others.
- Middle East & Caribbean: New countries like Israel, Jordan, and several Caribbean island nations also emerged.
Post-Cold War (1990s-Present)
- Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991): Resulted in the independence of 15 republics, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), and Central Asian republics.
- Breakup of Yugoslavia (1990s-2000s): Led to the formation of new countries like Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and later Kosovo (not fully recognized by all countries).
- Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (1993): Created two separate countries, Czech Republic and Slovakia.
- New Nations in Africa: Eritrea (1993, from Ethiopia) and South Sudan (2011, from Sudan).
Other Notable Formations
- Timor-Leste (East Timor): Gained independence from Indonesia in 2002.
- Palau and Micronesia: Became independent from the United States-administered Trust Territories in the 1990s.
In summary, over 100 new countries have appeared in the last century, primarily due to decolonization, the collapse of empires, and geopolitical shifts. The majority of these new nations were formed in the wake of World War II and during the decolonization period of the mid-20th century, as well as the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.
